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Eric Voegelin Society Meeting 2009
Alfarabi's Concept of Happiness Sa'ada (سعادة):
Eudaimonia, The Good and Jihad Al-Nafs (جهاد النفس)
Copyright 2006 Samah Elhajibrahim
Alfarabi's Concept of Happiness Sa'ada (سعادة):
Eudaimonia, The Good, Jihad Al-Nafs (جهاد النفس)
Distinguished
Alfarabi scholars such as Muhsin Mahdi and Majid Fakhry have described Abu
Nasr Alfarabi as one of the greatest Islamic political philosophers and as the
founder of Islamic Neoplatonism. The medieval Islamic community considered him
the "Second Master" with Aristotle being the "First Master". Abu Nasr
Alfarabi was born in approximately 870 A.D. in a small village, Wisaj, near
Farab in
Since
the translation of many of Alfarabi's works from Arabic to English, there
has been a lot of interest in studying his philosophy. Many scholars such as
Mahdi, Butterworth, Fakhri and Galston have written books about Alfarabi and
his works. Most of these scholars have focused on Alfarabi's virtuous city
and his philosophy on Plato and Aristotle. However, there has not been enough
attention and scrutiny devoted to Alfarabi's concept of happiness. Some
scholars such as Ali Abu Melhem didn't perceive the concept of happiness as
a major theme in Alfarabi's works. In his
introduction to the Attainment of Happiness, by Alfarabi, Abu Melhem,
clarifies that Alfarabi did not write the title of the book. He states that
the subject of the book is not happiness because Alfarabi mentioned happiness
only briefly. According to Abu Melhem, the subject and the purpose of the book
is to introduce the different kinds of sciences,
their importance and the way of attaining them (6). Likewise, Muhsin Mahdi, a
renowned Alfarabi scholar who translated several of his books to English, did
not discuss in detail Alfarabi's concept of happiness. In his introduction
to The Attainment of Happiness, Mahdi states that Alfarabi's
main argument is the relationship between philosophy and religion (6). In fact
happiness was not only the main subject of The Attainment of
Happiness but it was also discussed in several other major works including
Opinions of the People of the Virtuous City, The Civil Politics and The
Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Alfarabi's happiness was a major
topic in Majid Fakhry's book Al-Farabi. Fakhry acknowledges the
importance of happiness to Al-Farabi's philosophy, "Al-Farabi dwells on
this divine or semi-divine goal of happiness in a number of works." (93).
Likewise, Mariam Galston acknowledges the importance of happiness in Alfarabi's
works by devoting a chapter in her book Politics and Excellence to the
"problem of happiness" as she calls it. She examines the nature of
happiness according to Alfarabi and whether it is considered a theoretical
activity, political activity or both (Galston 55).
In
this paper I will examine the concept of happiness and its importance in
Alfarabi's major works, taking into consideration the influence of Islam and
Greek philosophy on Alfarabi's philosophy. The
paper will also discuss the similarities between Eric Voegelin's philosophy
and Alfarabi's philosophy as they relate to happiness. The purpose of this
paper is to remove the dust from Alfarabi's concept of happiness and return
the brilliance to it.
Happiness
According to Alfarabi
Alfarabi
starts his book, The Attainment of Happiness by stating "nations and
citizens of cities attain earthly happiness in the first life and supreme
happiness in the life beyond when four human things are met: theoretical
virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts" ("The
Attainment of Happiness".25). Although Alfarabi makes a distinction between
earthly happiness and supreme happiness, he makes no further mention of
earthly happiness in the rest of his book. Earthly happiness is necessary in
this life for the attainment of supreme happiness in the afterlife, yet it is
clearly incomplete and secondary to supreme happiness.
Happiness
to Alfarabi is the absolute good. It is the good that is desired for its own
sake where there is nothing greater to achieve. Achieving happiness is the
purpose of life. Alfarabi makes happiness the reason for human existence. He
expressly states that God created us to achieve happiness, the ultimate
perfection. To Alfarabi, anything that helps a person achieve happiness is
good and anything that obstructs a person from achieving happiness is evil.
Happiness is achieved when the soul of the person reaches perfection, in which
it needs no material substance to exist. One need not only comprehend and be
conscious about happiness; one must also desire happiness and make it the
purpose of life. If one's desire for happiness is weak and one has a
different purpose in life, the result will be evil ("The Attainment of
Happiness" 25-46)
Alfarabi
describes each of these virtues and arts in detail and shows how they can be
attained. Theoretical virtues consist of the sciences, the purpose of which is
to have understanding of all the beings with absolute certainty. A portion of
the theoretical virtues is possessed by people without an awareness of how
they were acquired. These are the first premises or primary knowledge. First,
a person must understand the conditions and the states of the first premises
and their order. The rest is acquired by investigation, meditation, teaching
and learning. At this stage, a person investigates the principles of being of
the animals, the rational animals (human beings), the physical principles, the
soul, the intellect and the intelligibles. After the principles of being are
known, this will require the person to search for other higher principles that
are not bodies or in bodies, but are metaphysical. Alfarabi asserts that
natural principles are not sufficient to understand metaphysics and achieve
happiness and perfection. Other principles are needed, namely rational and
intellectual principles. A basic understanding of intellectual principles is
not sufficient for the achievement of happiness. One needs to labor with these
intellectual principles. According to Alfarabi, a person must join other human
beings in order to labor with these principles because an isolated individual
cannot achieve the ultimate perfection. To Alfarabi one cannot attain
happiness outside the framework of political association. From this
association emerges the science of man and political science. The science of
man is the examination of the purpose for which man is made. Alfarabi explains
that in these sciences, which are metaphysical, one must understand the first
premises to this genus. One must investigate and understand every being in
this genus until one reaches a being that possesses no principles at all, but
is itself the first principle of all beings. After understanding this Being
that has no defects, one should investigate the influence of this Being
on all other beings. Through this investigation, a person comes to know the
ultimate causes of the beings.
After
knowing and understanding the first cause, one should investigate all the
things that are good, virtuous and noble, which are useful in achieving
happiness. One must also know the things that are evil, vice and base, that
obstruct achieving happiness. According to Alfarabi, the science that
studies and investigates this is political science. Alfarabi defines political
science as "knowing the things by which the citizens of cities attain
happiness through political association." (Mahdi, "Alfarabi's
Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle" 24). According to Alfarabi
theoretical sciences cover only the intelligibles that do not vary at all.
Deliberative
virtues, on the other hand, cover voluntary intelligibles that vary across
time and place such as events that occur by accident or by the will, such as a
natural disaster or a war. Deliberative virtue is that "by which one
discovers what is most useful for some virtuous end." (Mahdi, "Alfarabi's
Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle" 28) The deliberative faculty can discover
both evil and good means. If the ends are evil, then the means discovered by
the deliberative faculty are evil. If the ends are good, then the means are
good. Alfarabi defines a certain deliberative virtue called political
deliberative virtue. Political deliberative virtue enables a person to
discover what is most useful for a virtuous end for a nation or a city or
common to many nations, either for a long period or a short period. One cannot
possess deliberative virtue and especially political deliberative virtue
without possessing moral virtue, the third of the virtues required for
happiness. For a person who wishes the good for himself or herself or for
others has to have virtuous moral character. According to Alfarabi theoretical
virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts are
inseparable.
Alfarabi
offers two primary methods by which nations can achieve these virtues, either
through instruction or through formation of character. Instruction introduces
the theoretical virtues to nations and cities through speech alone. The
formation of character on the other hand introduces moral virtues and
practical arts through habituating the citizens in "doing the acts that issue
from the practical states of character by arousing in them the resolution to
do these acts." (Mahdi, "Alfarabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle"
35)
In
Civil Politics, Alfarabi again emphasizes the importance of
understanding the intelligibles and the first premises for achieving
happiness. He points out that not every person has the capacity to understand
these things. The people, who have the capacity to understand the
intelligibles and the first premises, will not necessarily achieve happiness.
These innate capacities make it easier for people to achieve happiness, but it
is up to them to work toward this goal. To Alfarabi, innate and natural
characters can be developed, strengthened or weakened. Alfarabi compares
virtuous acts (either possessed by nature or acquired) to the art of writing.
The more you practice the art of writing the better you become. Likewise, the
more you practice virtuous acts the more virtuous you become, which will
eventually lead you to happiness ("Civil Politics" 85-91).
Alfarabi
believes that a person needs a teacher or a master that can guide him or her
toward achieving happiness. Likewise, a city or a nation needs a master that
can direct it toward happiness. This master can be the king, the imam or the
philosopher. Imam, in Arabic means one whose example is followed. It refers to
Muslim clergy. Alfarabi argues that the function of the imam, the philosopher
and the legislator (king) are the same. This is an attempt by Alfarabi to
combine Philosophy and religion as well as to emphasize the importance of
politics or political participation in Islam. According to Alfarabi,
philosophy is the superior science, the purpose of which is to achieve supreme
happiness. Thus, a philosopher, or a king who has acquired philosophy and
happiness can lead a state toward happiness. He explains that like the science
of philosophy, religion supplies knowledge about the first principle and cause
of beings. Moreover, they both work toward achieving happiness. The only
difference between them is that religion is based on imagination, while
philosophy is based on conception or intellectual perception. Thus, the imam,
the king and the philosopher have the same purpose. People who are guided by
this kind of ruler (philosopher, king, imam) become virtuous and happy people.
To Alfarabi, a virtuous city is a city in which people cooperate and help each
other for the purpose of attaining happiness. The non-virtuous city on the
other hand is the city whose people don't know happiness. Happiness doesn't
even come to their minds. If they were to be guided towards happiness they
wouldn't understand it or believe in it. Alfarabi discussed the destiny of
the souls of the citizens of the virtuous city and the ignorant city and its
different types. He believed that the souls of the citizens of the virtuous
city are immortal. However, the souls of the citizens of the ignorant city are
mortal and thus their destiny is to suffer. Thus according to Alfarabi
political association should be directed towards the attainment of happiness.
The
Influence of Greek Philosophy
Alfarabi
was greatly influenced by both Plato and Aristotle in his philosophy in
general and in his concept of happiness in particular. He was also greatly
influenced by Islam. Despite the substantial influence of Plato and Aristotle,
Alfarabi generates a unique discussion of happiness, which is an amalgamation
of those ideas of Plato and Aristotle that are consistent with Islamic
philosophy. He selects portions from each of these three influences to
generate a complete description of happiness. Alfarabi's concept of
happiness is a product of his experience and his understanding of Greek
philosophy and Islam. His concept of happiness combines Plato's concept of
the good, Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia (happiness) and the
Islamic concept of Jihad Al nafs (struggle of the soul). I will discuss
each of these influences in detail.
Unlike
Aristotle's developed concept of happiness, Plato's concept is more
obscure. Plato's concept of the Good is similar to happiness as defined by
Aristotle and Alfarabi. The Good is the source of intelligibility. Plato
discussed "the Good" in his paradigm, the divided line. He believed that the
highest goal in all of education is knowledge of the Good. He argued that just
as the sun provides light by means of which we are able to perceive everything
in the visual world, so the Form of the Good provides the ultimate standard by
means of which we can apprehend the reality of everything that has value.
According to Plato human beings aim at the good and nobody voluntarily chooses
evil. Evil actions are the product of lack of insight. He argued that
theoretical reason is the highest activity of man and a necessity to attain
happiness. In this regard, Plato seems to suggest that the masses are
incapable of grasping the truth. This is illustrated in the allegory of the
cave where Plato suggests that the masses cannot see the truth directly but
are satisfied with an imitation of reality. To Plato the good is the source of
intelligibility. Similarly to Al-Farabi happiness is the attainment of
intelligibility. Both of them described their concepts as the goal of life and
both of them excluded any materialistic entities from their concepts. In
talking about Plato's and Alfarabi's philosophy, Mahdi said, "Both
direct the eyes of the citizens to a happiness
beyond their worldly concerns." ("History of Political Philosophy", 207)
Happiness
(eudaimonia) according to Aristotle is "an activity of the soul in
accordance with virtue, and if the virtues are several in number, in
accordance with the best and most perfect" (348). Happiness is the highest
of all goods. It is a first principle and cause of all goods. It is a
self-sufficient activity always chosen for itself.
While other virtues are chosen for themselves, they are also chosen for the
sake of happiness but happiness is the only thing chosen only for itself
and not for the sake of other things. Aristotle distinguished between the life
of amusement and the happy life. He believed that amusement is not self
sufficient like happiness. Aristotle proposes two possible paths to happiness
and asks which of the two is best, a life of virtuous activity or a life of theoria.
The first path defines happiness as a practical virtue and therefore in need
of external goods. Aristotle said, "A man who is very ugly in appearance or
ill-born or solitary and childless is not very likely to be happy As we
said, then, happiness seems to need this sort of prosperity in addition."
(342). In the second path happiness is defined as theoria,
or the contemplation of eternal truths for an entire lifetime. Theoria
is the highest activity of reason. Ultimately, Aristotle explicitly chooses theoria,
a self-absorbed activity over practical virtue (arte). This involves
attending to one's own well-being, over engagement with others. Not only is
the life of theoria superior to any
other, it is higher than human. The life of practical arte achieves eudaimonia
in a lesser sense because of the necessity of material goods in this life.
The life of theoria limits the need for material goods, which can
impede it. Perfect eudaimonia is enjoyed by the Gods and is theoretical
rather than practical. Aristotle implies that in achieving eudaimonia one
approaches becoming a God (Adkins 297-299).
Although
Alfarabi's concept has many similarities with that of Aristotle, there are
several fundamental and important differences. The similarities include the
fact that happiness is the highest of all goods, chosen only for itself and
the goal of life. The means of achieving happiness and the nature of happiness
according to Alfarabi are different. It is clear that the path described by
Alfarabi's is not one of self absorbed contemplation for an entire lifetime
but through knowledge and action applied together, "Whatever by its nature
should be known and practiced, its perfection lies in it actually being
practiced." (Al-Talbi 3) In addition, Alfarabi differs with Aristotle and
Plato on the relationship between virtues and happiness. To Aristotle, virtues
are sought for their own sake and for the sake of happiness. In the Republic,
Plato asserts that justice, which is a virtue, should be sought for its own
sake. To Alfarabi, virtues are sought only for the sake of happiness. However,
they all agree on the importance of virtues in achieving happiness.
A
substantive difference between Alfarabi and both Plato and Aristotle is the
availability of happiness to the masses. To Plato, reason is the highest good
and only those capable of rational contemplation can reach this good. Despite
the undeniable influence of the "two wise ones" on Alfarabi, their
consensus on the limited number of people who can achieve happiness poses a
dilemma for Alfarabi with regard to his other major influence, Islam. Muslims
hold that the Quran describes morality in the most perfect form and is
available to anyone. Islam is based on a divinely revealed law in which
everyone can participate. Alfarabi deals with this dilemma by arguing that,
each person can achieve happiness at his own level, "to each man according
to his rank in the order of humanity, belongs the specific supreme happiness."
(Alfarabi, "The Attainment of Happiness" 75).
He also makes his definition of happiness more practical than theoretical as
described above. In her book, Galston addressed this issue in detail and
concluded that Alfarabi's concept of happiness included both theoretical
perfection as well as practical perfection. She believed that by giving
practical perfection an essential role in the attainment of happiness,
Alfarabi departed from his teachers, namely Aristotle and Plato (57). Galston
questioned the importance of practical perfection in Plato's happiness. She
argues that although Plato's philosopher as presented in the Republic,
is active in political endeavors, the philosopher must return to the cave and
he does this reluctantly. As such, she suggests that the philosopher's
political activity is irrelevant for achieving happiness or at least not
necessary for its attainment. Thus, she suggests that Plato and Aristotle are
in agreement that political activity (a part of practical perfection),
although important are not necessary for achieving happiness. This departure
from his Greek predecessors was necessary, in order for Alfarabi to be
consistent with Islam and the concept of Jihad al nafs, as will be
discussed next. The immediate implication of a practical rather than a
theoretical road to happiness, is that through
specialization, each person can achieve his own specific supreme happiness.
This is fundamentally different than the single method of solitary
contemplation prescribed by Aristotle. Unlike theoria, which can only be achieved by the philosopher, happiness to
Alfarabi can be achieved by the warrior, and the artisan in addition to the
philosopher. Despite making happiness available to the masses, Alfarabi
differentiates the philosophers by giving them the responsibility of
leadership in happiness.
It
can be noted here that the distinction that Alfarabi makes between earthly
happiness in this life and supreme happiness in the next is particularly
relevant to the dilemma posed by Aristotle. This dilemma is that humans not
only have base desires but genuine needs to survive that preclude the
achievement of happiness which is defined by all as an activity of the soul.
This is resolved by Aristotle by choosing a life of theoria that
minimizes one's needs, over a practical virtuous life in which needs and
human interaction are prevalent. The resolution reached by Alfarabi is
consistent with Islamic theology, namely that earthly happiness exists but is
limited. On earth one prepares oneself for the supreme happiness, which is
achieved by the transition to the next life in which the soul sheds the
earthly body. This supreme happiness is the one sought for its own sake. The
conception that supreme happiness is reached only in the next life relieves
Alfarabi of the problem of dealing with the body and its genuine needs, and
allows him to propose a vibrant practical life rather than a recluse
theoretical life.
The
Influence of Islam
Alfarabi's
conception of happiness is highly consistent with Islamic theology. At the
very beginning of The Attainment of Happiness, Alfarabi distinguishes
between earthly happiness in this life and supreme happiness in the afterlife.
This statement indicates that as a Muslim, Alfarabi believes in the afterlife.
There are several indications that suggest that Alfarabi believes that earthly
happiness is secondary and derived from supreme happiness. First, he omits any
further mention of earthly happiness in the rest of the book and frequently
qualifies happiness with the word supreme. Second, he uses the term "Al
sa'ada al dunia" to describe earthly happiness in the first life. The
word dunia has two meanings, one literal, which means earthly and one
metaphorical, which means lowly. If he only meant earthly happiness he may
have said "Al sa'ada fi al dunia" or happiness on earth.
Furthermore, in the same sentence he describes happiness in the afterlife as
the supreme happiness (Al sa'ada al quswa). When one examines these
two terms together, it is clear from the terminology that the intention is
that one is lowly and the other is supreme rather than one being merely earthly
and the other supreme. This description of a relatively unimportant earthly
life when compared to the afterlife is a major theme of Islamic theology. In
Islam, all that humans do in this life is for the afterlife and so earthly
life derives its importance solely from the afterlife. Several verses in the
Quran point to the lowliness of this earthly life. "And the life of this
world is nothing but provision of vanities." (Quran 3:184) "Every
soul shall taste death. And We test you by evil and by good by way of trial.
To Us must you return." (Quran 21:35) This verse shows that this life is
merely a period of probation. It is only important because it determines if we
are to be punished or rewarded. Another verse says, "When death comes to one
of them, he would say `O my Lord send me back to life in order that I may work
righteousness in the things I neglected." (Quran 23:99-100). This shows that
earthly life is a process where we have the opportunity to find the good and
do it. Alfarabi who is very aware of
these concepts in Islam, did not go on to deal with the differences between
earthly and supreme happiness and given the context of Islamic theology, he
did not need to. Alfarabi, linked the four human
things necessary to achieve happiness to both earthly and supreme happiness.
Here, Muhsin Mahdi raised the question of whether according to Alfarabi these
things are sufficient to achieve supreme happiness or whether there is divine
aid that is also necessary. Mahdi states, "Alfarabi could not simply have
overlooked what most Muslims believed to be the primary condition for
attaining ultimate happiness", namely the intervention of divine grace ("Alfarabi
and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy" 174). Alfarabi addresses
this indirectly by prescribing the examination of the interaction between the
First Cause and all other beings including ourselves. However, this question
is beyond the scope of this article.
In
Islamic theology, the universe in which man is placed was not created for
trivial goals. The universe was created teleologically and so was man. The
goal of man and the entire universe is to reach God. Man is the highest of all
that was created by God. The Quran states that every human being is born with
the divine spirit breathed into him. God commands the angels to kneel before
man "So when I have made him complete and breathed into him of My
spirit (ruh), fall down making obeisance to him" (Quran
The
process of developing the soul takes place in the stage of development called al
nafs al lawwamah. This stage is defined by a struggle that takes place
within the self in which the person has become aware of a higher deeper
reality and struggles to direct all thought and action through an aware and
conscious center rather than moving from one base urge to the next. This
struggle to manage and control the self is called the greater struggle or Jihad,
more specifically Jihad al nafs the struggle of the soul, "And
whosoever strives (jahada), strives (yujahidu) only for himself.
Surely Allah is self sufficient, above need of His creatures." (Quran 29:6).
During this stage of active Jihad, the lower self is subdued and the
higher potentials are realized. The person struggles with turning his inner
self and his worldly life into a new way of living that understands the true
reality in which the material is only a small portion. One begins to
understand the covenant that his soul made with God when God brought all the
souls of the children of Adam that will be born and asked them, "Am I not
your Lord? They said: Yes; we bear witness. Lest you say on the day of
Resurrection: We were unaware of this." (Quran 7:172). Upon realizing this
true reality, the person begins the greater struggle to make himself true to
this covenant.
The
above examination of the religious Islamic understanding of the soul, the
struggle of the soul, and the ultimate purpose of existence as defined by God
in the Quran provides a basis upon which to examine Alfarabi's theory of
happiness. It is now clear that in Islam, happiness, the path to happiness and
the struggle are clearly defined. The teleological framework is defined: God
created man. Man is God's greatest creation. God made a covenant with each
person's soul prior to his coming to life. God created man to achieve bliss
(happiness) in the next life through a clearly defined struggle in this life
called Jihad. This framework as defined by Islam left little room for
Alfarabi in defining his theory of happiness. The similarities to Plato and
Aristotle are evident in Alfarabi's discussion of happiness in that
happiness is an activity of the soul, in accordance with virtue, and is sought
for itself. There are three main aspects of happiness in which Alfarabi
deviates from Greek philosophy: 1) Alfarabi explicitly spells out the
teleological process that Man was created by God to achieve happiness ("The
Attainment of Happiness" 43-44). 2) Alfarabi's process for the attainment
of happiness is a practical struggle much closer to Jihad al nafs than
it is to the recluse theoria described by Aristotle. 3) Alfarabi's
concept of happiness is not exclusive to philosophers but available to the
masses who can achieve happiness through this process. I argue that all of
these deviations from Greek philosophy are necessary if Alfarabi is to remain
within the bounds defined by Islam. Because the Quran and Hadith (the
teachings of the Prophet Mohammad) are so explicit in describing the purpose
of man's creation, it was inevitable for Alfarabi to explicitly define the
teleological process as he did. Because the path of struggle was spelled out
in the Quran as a practical daily human struggle, Alfarabi could not describe
it as a theoretical struggle. Because every soul made a covenant with God and
is responsible for struggling in this life, happiness cannot be exclusive to
the philosopher.
After
appreciating the degree of similarity between Islamic religious theology and
Alfarabi's philosophy, we note the unusual absence of Islamic terms in his
writings. He could have simply stated that the path to happiness requires Jihad
al nafs. Instead there is a notable almost intentional absence of the use
of any Islamic terms. This is despite the clear influence of Islam on Alfarabi
as noted above. This is because he considers his philosophy universally valid.
His view of philosophy in general is that it is a universal endeavor that does
not change from nation to nation or from religion to religion. There is a
conspicuous absence of an admission that Islam factors at all in his
philosophy. For that, he exposes himself to the criticism of copying the
Greeks (Mahdi, "Al-Farabi's
Political
Participation and Happiness
To
Alfarabi participation in the community of being is necessary for the
attainment of happiness. Alfarabi believes that an isolated person cannot
achieve happiness "For an isolated individual cannot achieve all the
perfections by himself and without the aid of many other individuals." (Mahdi,
"Alfarabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle" 23). The reason
for this is intrinsic to humanity, "It is the innate disposition of every
man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform."
(Alfarabi, "The Attainment of Happiness" 44) Alfarabi is consistent with
the Quran, which states, "O mankind! We have created you male and female,
and have made you nations and tribes that you may know each other" (Qur'an
49:13). Here God states that He created us in different groups that we may
know each other. This verse clearly supports both the importance of
association and the innateness of this quality. According to Alfarabi,
political association can be of two types, one directed toward happiness and
the other directed toward contrary goals. When political association is
directed towards happiness, the product is a virtuous city, whereas when it is
directed at pleasure, or wealth, the product is a non-virtuous city full of
misery and depravity. The way Alfarabi defines a virtuous city illustrates the
importance of participation. He believes that a virtuous city is a city in
which its people help each other to attain happiness. Help is connected to
happiness not just through action but also linguistically. The vast majority of words in Arabic come from a three
letter root. سعد (sa'ida)
is the three letter root verb, meaning to be happy. سعادة
(sa'ada), is the noun derived from the root and it means happiness. ساعد
(sa'ad) is also derived from the root word sa'ida and it
means to help. Purely linguistically, there is a fundamental relationship
between helping and happiness. Note that Alfarabi studied linguistics and
mastered the use of language. Thus, he would have a deep understanding of the
relationship of the wordسعادة
(sa'ada)
and the word ساعد (sa'ad).
The
manner of political participation according to Alfarabi is supported by the
Quran, "And
[as for] the believers, both men and women - they are friends and protectors
of one another: they [all] enjoin the doing of what is good and forbid the
doing of what is evil, and are constant in prayer, and pay the poor-rate, and
pay heed unto God and His apostle." (Quran 9:71). This verse shows
that women and men are to work together through religion (prayer), through
social justice (helping the needy), and through political action. The above
verse from the Quran, is fundamental to the basic
understanding of Islam by Muslims, that it is each individual's social
responsibility to be conscious of those things that are good and evil in the
society and to encourage yourself and others to do what is good and forbid
yourself and others from doing what is evil. This brings us to the definition
of political science according to Alfarabi who states:
Then
he should investigate all the things by which man achieves this perfection, or
that are useful to him in achieving it. These are the good virtues and noble
things. He should distinguish them from things that obstruct his achieving
this perfection. These are the evils, the vices and the base things. He should
make known what and how every one of them is and from what and for what it is,
until all of them become
known, intelligible and
distinguished from each other. This is political science. It consists of
knowing the things by which the citizens of cities attain happiness through
political association. (Mahdi, "Alfarabi's Philosophy of Plato and
Aristotle" 24)
Therefore,
Alfarabi's conception of knowing what is good and evil and doing what is
good' is essentially identical to that described in the Quran. To this basic
Islamic concept, Alfarabi adds two important elements. He defines it as
political science, and makes it a prerequisite for the attainment of
happiness, which he previously defined as the purpose of human existence. It
follows that Alfarabi describes the leader of the city as the one able better
than anybody else to identify every action conducive to happiness and guide
others to true happiness and the actions leading to it. Therefore the leader
is the one who best understands political science and is most able to guide
others to happiness.
In
the Hadith, the prophet Mohammad said, "The believers, in their love,
mutual kindness, and close ties, are like one body; when any part complains,
the whole body responds to it with wakefulness and fever." (Hardy). The
analogy of the society as a body is used by Alfarabi. He compares the virtuous
city to a sound body whose organs cooperate but differ in rank and function.
The master organ, the heart is akin to the master ruler. Alfarabi's city is
also a microcosm of God's universe. The ruler of the city is compared to the
first cause.
Eric
Voegelin and Alfarabi
In
his tribute to Eric Voegelin, John Hallowell states, "If there is any modern
thinker who can be said to have engaged in the pursuit of truth in the spirit
in which Plato carried on that pursuit, that thinker is undoubtedly Eric
Voegelin." (3). Like Alfarabi and like most true philosophers, Voegelin's
philosophy is a search for the transcendent source of order. Both Alfarabi's
and Voegelin's philosophies are empty of ideologies. They did not create any
ideological system or doctrine; rather they both opened a path of inquiry
toward existence and its First cause. Both of them focus on the path of search
and inquiry. Alfarabi, for example discusses in great detail the way of
attaining and achieving happiness more than discussing the nature of happiness
itself. All we know about the nature of happiness is that it is the absolute
good and that it is desired for its own sake. He named his book the Attainment
of Happiness and not Happiness, focusing again on the way or the path.
Alfarabi's book "Altanbih ala Sabeel Al Saa'da" illustrates my
point. The translation of the title is, "The Direction to the Way of
Happiness". Likewise, if we look at Plato's concept of the Good, we find
more information about the way to the Good than about the nature of the Good.
We are told that the Good is "Author and governor of the intelligible order,
of the world of reality" (Plato 204), but the path to the Good is explained
in detail from imagination to belief to understanding and then reason.
Likewise, Voegelin's philosophy focuses on the way or path of inquiry on "Zetema".
Zetema as defined by Voegelin is "the conceptual illumination of the
way up from the depth of existence." ("Plato" 83). Voegelin's zetema
is similar to Alfarabi's way of attaining happiness. In other words it
is like the struggle of the soul (jihad al nafs). Voegelin states, "Zetema
as an ongoing quest for truth never achieves a final resting point; it comes
to a halt only with the death of the philosopher" (Elliott). Similarly
the way for happiness cannot be stopped, since supreme happiness cannot be
achieved except in the after life. Likewise in Islam the journey of the
struggle of the soul doesn't end until the body dies and the soul goes to
the next life. This idea is beautifully illustrated in Islamic practices
around death. When a person dies, the family places obituary notices in the
mosques and the streets. This obituary starts by a Quranic verse "
O soul at rest (al nafs al mutma'innah), return to thy lord,
well pleased, well pleasing, so enter among my servants and enter my garden."
(Quran 89:28). This verse is placed on the obituary hoping that the soul has
moved from al nafs al ammara to al nafs al lawwamah to al
nafs al mutma'innah, so that it finds its quietude and its happiness.
Like Alfarabi's concept of happiness, which should be desired for its own
sake, Zetema should be equipped by motivation and emanated from an
inside source.
Furthermore
all of these concepts, zetema, happiness, the Good, the struggle of the
soul and eudaimonia contain a degree of mystery. This mystery reflects
the nature of the Being to which all of the inquiry is directed. Both Alfarabi
and Voegelin demonstrate the importance of the Being in their philosophy.
Although Voegelin was influenced by Christianity and Alfarabi was influenced
by Islam, they agree on the fundamental questions of human existence or the
First Reality. Like Alfarabi, Voegelin believes that truth could not be
achieved in an intellectual vacuum. He states, "Truth about the constitution
of being, of which human existence is a part, is not achieved in an
intellectual vacuum, but in the permanent struggle with preanalytical notions
of existence, as well as with erroneous analytical conceptions." (Sandoz
38). This struggle and analytical conception was also required by Alfarabi to
achieve happiness and perfection. Alfarabi and Voegelin believe that
philosophers have the responsibility of teaching the citizens to undertake the
struggle. Alfarabi states " The perfect philosopher must have the capacity
for teaching all the citizens and for forming their characters so as to enable
everyone to achieve the happiness or perfection he is capable of attaining by
nature." (Mahdi, "Alfarabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle" 6).
Similarly Voegelin illuminates the importance of philosophy and philosophers
in a city by saying, "The philosopher's office thus is twofold: he must
set forth the truth by elaborating it analytically, and he must guard the
truth against error." (Sandoz 39). The truth that Voegelin is referring to
in this statement is the truth of existence. Thus, Voegelin's philosopher is
similar to Alfarabi's conception of a philosopher, an imam who is
knowledgeable of the first principle and cause of the beings. This also
emphasizes Alfarabi's belief (following the ancient Greeks) that philosophy
and religion are two expressions of a single truth.
Works
Cited
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Muhammad. The Holy Quran. Ahmadiyayah
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& McKeon, R. P, 1947. Introduction to Aristotle.
Butterworth,
Charles. Alfarabi, the Political Writings: Selected Aphorisms and Other
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Jack. "Dictionary of Voegelinian Terminology."
<http://home.salamander.com/~wmcclain/ev-dictionary.html>.
Fakhry,
Majid. Al-Farabi: Founder of Islamic Neoplatonism. Oneworld
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Galston,
Mariam. Politics and Excellence.
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John. "Eric Voegelin (1901-1985)." The
Intercollegiate Review, 1985.
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Paul. "Islam and Race Question." <http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/misc/race.htm>.
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